Qaamoota seeraa dhimma kana barattoota kana gargaaruu dandahu marti akka tumsa godhuuf itti dhaamaf.
",,,,It is better if called that way,,,," jedhee maqichuma dur nutti moggaasan ammallee mirkaneessuu yaale barsiisaan kun. Kuni kan harkaan barreefame. attach nuu gochuu didnaani kan akkas goone. partiin hafes itti fufa.
THE RISE OF THE MUSILIM KINGDAM
The Pastoralist Element
Until recently it was believed that originally the Galla pastoralists, who call them selves Oromo, inhabited the southeastern and eastern part of the Horn of Africa. Presently occupied by the Somalia and Afar (Dnakali) people. It was also believed that the Dankali and the Somali, coming from the north, gradually pushed the Galla southwards and westwards from the begging of the second millenium A.D. Hence, by the sixteenth century, the Galla had came to inhabit semi-desert areas of the southern borders of the Ethiopian plateau and the northern parts of present-day Kenya, and from there, under the pressure of the expanding Somali tribes, they had begun their migration in to Ethiopia. However, scholars now argue that in fact the Galla tribes did not inhabit the southeastern and eastern parts of the Horn before the turn of the fifteenth century. It is most likely that for an extended period they inhabited the area to the south and southeast of the Ethiopian Rift Valley lakes and that the Somali and Dankali migrated with their herds from south to north rather than from north to south. This migration was probably triggered off by population growth and the insufficiency of grazing land and, finally, mounting pressure of Galla trips, who had begun their two-pronged expansion, it seems, in the fifteenth century.
The Galla expansion southeastwards, along the Webi Shebelli, a minor branch of the great Galla migration in the sixteenth century, began; it seems, before that century, although the vanguard of the Galla reached the delta of the Juba only at the beginning of the seventeenth century. This relatively limited Galla migration, submerged in the following century by a migration of Somali tribes, is responsible for the existence of Galla enclaves, questionable archaeological evidence and traditions about Galla presence in parts of present-day Somalia. Be that as it may, the growth movement of the pastoralist groups created a chain reaction among the peoples of the Horn which was the reason, inter alia, for the incessant pressure of coastal-nomads on the eastern escarpments of Ethiopia from the fourteenth century until the beginning of the sixteenth century.
Somali tribes inhabited the hinterland of the Benadir coast and possibly the Ogaden at least early as the beginning of the second millenium A.D. Gradually the northern Somali, including the Girri, Bartiri and Marehan, pushed their way from the marginal lands of the Ogaden to the Somali coast and into the Harar-Checher plateau where they replaced some of the previous inhabitants or inter-mingled with them.
The Dankali, who had arrived it seems in the southeastern part of the Horn even earlier than the Somali, were gradually pushed northwards out of the Chercher-Harar region into the inhospitable deserts of the Ethiopian- Eritrean coast beyond the awash, although they persistently clung to the slopes of the Harari plateau. Consequently they became the neighbours of the Saho pastoralist, who inhabited the coastal plains north of the bay of Zula and the salt depressions at the foot of the Tigrean plateau.
The intermittent but systematic ravaging of the Harar-Chercher plateau and of Aussa, the punishment inflicted by the Ethiopian armies on the settled population, and the harassment of the pastoralists in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, actually facilitated the Somali expansion and entrenchment in the area. This northward expansion, the origin of which may have been population growth, as well as Bantu or Galla pressure, reached its peak by the turn of the fifteenth century. At the beginning of the sixteenth century the Somali tribes, only nominally Muslim, had already replaced the semitised cultivators in the area between the coast and Harar and begun to exert pressure on the Amirate of Harar, its smaller satellites and the southern Afar. In addition to their involvement in the politics of smaller amirates in the region, they occasionally attacked trade caravans and greatly contributed to the disorder in the region. The border line between the Somali and Afar territories remained fluid and gave rise to endless raids and counter-raids, but, generally speaking, it could be said that the dividing line between the peoples stretched from the Bay of Tajura along the northern slopes of the Chercher-Harar range to the Awash and the Doba country in the gullies falling from the highlands on the verges of Angot.
Population movement along the coastal plains of the Horn of Africa and the Harar-Chercher plateau, which gradually built up between the twelfth and sixteen centuries, undoubtedly affected relation between the coastal people and Ethiopia. As the power of the Muslim principalities in the area diminished, do to the rise of Christian Ethiopia, their ability to withstand the incursion of the pastoralists declined. Thus, by the decades of the fifteenth century.
Factors for the success of the Oromo
The wise men often discuss these maters and say, how is it that the Galla (i.e. the Oromo) defeat us, though we are numerous and well supplied with arms? Some have said that God has allowed because of our sins; others, that it is because our nation is divided into ten classes nine of which take no part whatever in war, and make no shame of displaying their fear; only the tenth classes makes war and fights to the best of its ability. Now, although we are numerous, those who can fight in war are few in numbers, and there are many who go not to war.
Of these classes, the first is that of the monks, of whom there are vast numbers. Among them are those who become monks at an early age, drawn there to by the other monks while they are standing, as indeed was the case with him who has written this history and others like him. There are also others who became monks because they fear war. A second group is composed of those who air called dabtara, or clerks; they study the holy books and all works relating to the occupations of the clergy; they clap their hands and stamp their feet during divine service, and have no shame for their fear of going to the wars. These people take as their models the Levites and priests, namely, the sons of Aaron. The third group is that of the people called Jan Hasana and Jan Ma’asare, who look after the administration of justice, and keep themselves from war. The fourth group is formed by those who escort the wives of dignitaries and the princesses; they are vigorous, brave, and strong men who nevertheless do not go to war, for they say, “we are the protectors of the women”. The fifth group calls itself Semaglle, elders they are the lords and hereditary landowners. They share their land with their laboures, and are not ashamed of their fear. The six group is that of the labourers in agricultures who live in the filed and have no thought of taking part in war. The seventh group is composed of those who engage in trade and gain profit thereby. The eighth group is that of the artisans, such as the smiths, scribes, carpenters, and such-like, who know not the art of war. The ninth group is that of the wondering singers, those who play qunda kabaro and the bagana, whose profession is to beg to collect money. They invoke blessings on those who reward them, flattering them with vain praises and idle panegyrics; while those who refuse to give them presents they curse, though they are not held blameworthy for this, for, as they say “This is our custom”. Such people keep themselves as far as possible from war. The tenth group, finally, is composed of those who carry the shield and spear, who can fight, and who follow the steps of their king to war. It is because these are so few in number that our country is ruined.
Among the Galla, on the contrary, these nine classes which we have mentioned do not exist; all men, from small to great, are instructed in warfare, and for this reason they ruin and kill us.
(Extract from Bahery, History of the Galla, in some Records of Ethiopia, ed.C.F. Beckingham and G.W.B Huntingford (London, 1954), pp. 125-126.)
The Rise of Galla Power in the Horn
The Galla and the disintegration of Adal
In the 1550s Galawdewos was constantly preoccupied in fighting the Galla in the southern peripheries of his kingdom and the Muslims of the Harar-Chercher plateau. The monarch’s tacties concerning the Galla were relatively successful in the short run, and their eruptions were on the whole curbed by new Chewa garrisons supported by the royal army. His strategy concerning Adal, however, completely misfired.
In spite of the internal strife in the sultanate, the Adalites managed to launch several attacks on the eastern and southern provinces of Ethiopia. But these attacks, accompanied by uprisings of local Muslims were ineffective and resembled the raids of the Muslim amirs on Ethiopia a century earlier. The Ethiopians suppressed the rebellions in the southern provinces and settled many Chwa there. But determined to break Adal’s power through attrition, they retaliated by massive raids into the sultanate, constantly ravaged its territories and at one stage even temporarlily occupied Harar. Such a strategy, unoccupied by colonization had proved ineffective in the past and it rather rekindled in Adal an atmosphere similar to that which preceded the great conquest of Gran. Already in 1551/2 differences and rivalries were forgotten and the settled population and nomads united under the command of Gran’s nephew Nuribn Mujahid.
Following the examples of his uncle, Nur left the Walasma sultan on his throne and took to himself the title of Imam. Within a matter of few years he had succeeded in reorganizing the administration and the army of the sultanate and in 1559 he led his force into Dawaro. Disregarding an Ethiopian army commanded by Gelawdewoos’ kinsman, Hamalmal, which invaded Adal, Nur continued his advance in the direction of Fatagar. With the northern regiments watching the Turks and the Borana Galla pinning down the Chwa in the area of Rift valley lakes.
Gelawdewos’ army, which confronted Nur, was not only physically weak because of the fast of Lent, but also inferior in numbers and armaments to that of the Muslims. Hence, though the monarch fought heroically he was totally defeated and was killed on the battleground. But rather than continuing his advance into Ethiopia Nur, after garrisoning the southern provinces of the plateau, chose to return to Harar, which was threatened by the Galla migration.
Element in the horn of a major theme throughout the period. But thought lack of source materials concerning the Galla the history of the area is unbalanced and incomplete. The Oromo, 5 better known as Galla, 6 were Cushitic pastoralists with a common language, culture and socio-political organization. 7 Although, as their tradition indicate, the Galla may have had originally a center political and spiritual leadership in the person of the legendary abba muda 8 when first reported in Ethiopia and Adal they were already divided in to different groups which operated independently each having its own elected leader. Basically, the major division among the Galla was between Baraytuma and Borana. 9 But these groups were in their turn composed a number of tribes and clans stemming from legendary ancestors. Internally each Galla ‘tribe’ was organized in five classes called gada. The gada system was not. However, an age-graded system because of son could join the first of the parallel gada classes only after his father had completed the cycle of five classes of the gada. Once he was initiated in to the first classes of the gada promotion from one class to another took place automatically and collectively, irrespective of age, every eight years. 10 each classes had specific function within the scope of activities of the tribes. But above all the internal organization of the tribe was geared for welfare. Militarily the most important was the third class, which served as the spearhead of the tribe. But the second class of the gada, in training to take over the duties of the third, and the fourth class were also used extensively in battle whenever necessity arose.
The fifth class of the gada, 11called in many sources luba could be considered the ruling gada as it served in a way as a council of elders and greatly influenced decisions taken by the tribe or clan. Tribesmen who completed the full cycle of the gada (five classes) were retired from participation in the activities of the tribes and were usually left with the young children and women in the rear camp to tend the cattle and defined it, if attacked. Galla society, like most pastoral societies was egalitarian in the extreme. Each gada elected its own leader (abba gada) and other office holders. One of the most important of these was the war leader the third class, usually called Abba dula. Who was in fact the military commander of the whole tribe in time of war? Another important office holder was the Abba boko 12, in a way the spiritual and to a certain extent a political leader of the tribe. Office holders, unless exceptionally strong and gifted, were considered and treated as primus pares. Each members of the tribe could voice his opinion and influence decision taken in the council of his gada or the tribe. Thus the elected officers of the tribes, as well as the luba, executed the collective wishes of their tribe rather than of themselves when making decisions. 13
According to Galla ritual, members of the second classes of the Gada could not be initiated in to the next classes unless they killed a warrior (or a dangerous animals) and fought an enemy which had not been previously attacked 14. Such a system gave rise to endemic raids and the constant extensions of the radius of Galla penetration. It also explains the correlation between the rhythm of Galla pressure and the rise to power of a new Luba every eight years. 15 by the middle of the sixteenth century; moreover, the population growth and substantial increase of Galla cattle, accompanied by a few years of drought. 16 undoubtedly influenced the pattern of Galla migration. Led by their Abba Dula, the warriors of each tribes or clan numbering a few thousands would swiftly penetrate enemy territory, sometimes across hundreds of miles. 17 living of the land; they destroyed every thing in the path and annihilated any one whom they met. Obviously the relatively rigid Ethiopian defaces system, based on Chewa supported by a cumbersome royal army could not prevent the penetration of highly mobile Galla raiding parties. Even the pastoralist’s forces of Adal and its excellent cavalry, surprised by attackers, their mobility and viciousness, were unable to stop them. But once they overcome their initial shock, the armies of Ifat and Ethiopian respectively could, in most cases, master the Galla raiding columns. Thus, through necessity or custom, after over running and looting a certain region. The Galla invaders quickly related to the southeastern peripheries of the plateau. The problem of the original home land of the Galla has already been discussed else where. 18 At the turn of sixteenth century, however, it seems that the savannah and the semi desert which they inhabited to the south of Bali could no longer support their growing numbers and their herds and the Galla began to move in to the southeastern peripheries of the Ethiopian plateau. The struggle between Gran and Christian Ethiopia undoubtedly
THE RISE OF GALLA POWER
Facilitated the Galla migration into the highlands. But this expansion was later curbed by Gran’s armies and by Gelawdewos, once the latter had firmly established his government in the south. The continuous struggle between Ethiopia and Adal after Gran’s death and the chaos within Adal, however, afforded the Baraytuma group, whose attempts to penetrate Ethiopia defenses were repeatedly frustrated, an opportunity to advance into Bali and the chercher-Harar plateau.
Nur ibn Mujahid’s campaign against Ethiopia and the destruction brought upon Adal by an Ethiopian army in 1559 further eroded its ability to withstand the Baraytuma’s raids. Thus, exploiting the absence of Nur and the bulk of the Muslim army, the Galla overran most of Harar’s territories and threatened the town proper. It was in this period, during the cycle of Iuba ‘Mesle’ (1556-1564), that the pattern of the Baraytuma’s expansion changed dramatically and became a full-seal migration, which affected both Adal and the peripheries of Ethiopia. The fifth luba was called Mesle…He devastated all the lands and rules them: and he entered with his animals, where as previously the Galla made war caming from the wabi and had returned there. Our king Ansaf sagad (Gelawdewos) had fought him starting from Asa Zanab. Nur’ the just and the pious’ is even more glorified by Harari traditions than Grans ‘the conquerer’ because he saved Harar from the Galla and dedicated himself to its protection.Nur’s armies continued to hold most of waj and Fatagar even after 1560, when they were reported to have been defeated by Hamalmal, but rather than caring on the traditional war against Ethiopia, from 1559 to the time of his death in 1567.Nurgave his undivided attention to the growing pressure of the Galla.
Although Nur was unable to dislodge the Galla from the parts of the Chercher-Harar plateau which they had overrun and settled his tireless campaigning and the wall which according to tradition, he had built around the town, temporary curbed the advance of the Baraytuma and saved Harar. Moreover, the relative stability in Harar during Nur’s reign enabled the town’s people to participate in the revived trade of the red sea and Harar enjoyed a period of great prosperity and development. Yet although he succeeded in postponing the disintegration of Adal, Nur, by his victory over Gelawdewos and the breaching of the Chewa defense system, unwittingly paved the way for the triumph of Galla power in the Horn of Africa.
After Nur’s death Adal reverted again to state of chaos. Several factions in Harar and the amirs of its different provinces fought each other for power. An Ethiopian convert supported by the refugee element in Harar, gained control of the government and deposed the last sultan of the Walasma dynasty. The disorder within Adal, however, afforded the Ethiopians an opportunity to re-establish their authority in part of the territories of the south-eastern provinces, which the Adalis still held. Concurrently, the Baraytuma Galla, especially Ittu, Humbana and Karayu tribes, renewed their advance in the Chercher-Harar plateau, along the eastern escarpments and even into the Dankali desert. Reconciling themselves to the new balance of power and the settlement of the Galla in the region and in order to facilitate their commercial activities, the more realistic elements inj Harar attempted at this stage to regulate their relations and trade with the Galla by treaty. This treaty, despite some opposition from the ‘traditionalists’, may have paved the way for the early islamisation of the Galla in the area of Harar.
Notwithstanding the enfeebled state of their sultanate and its harassment by Galla, the rulers of Harar tried in 1575 to re-establish their control over the southeastern provinces of the plateau. Sultan Muhammad IV, who co-ordinated his plans with the Ottoman pasha of Habesh, probably wished to exploit the war of succession in Ethiopia. Be that as it may in 1576 the Adali army was camped in Bali, poised for the attack on Ethiopia, and it punished the Muslim rulers of Hadya for having submitted to the Ethiopian ruler. Aware of the dangerous alliance between the Muslims and the threat to his authority in the southern provinces, Serse Dingil (r.1563-1597) quickly marched to the south and, taking advantages of the rivalry between the different components of the strong Muslim forces and their commanders, succeeded in defeating them. Sultan Muhammad and some of the most important Adali chiefs were taken prisoner and later executed. This was the last attempt of the Harari and coastal Muslims to attack Christian Ethiopia.
Injifannoo Ummata Oromoof!!
Gadaan Gadaa Bilisummaati!!
